A crise sísmica de New Madrid, nos Estados Unidos, começou há 214 anos

The Great Earthquake at New Madrid, a 19th-century woodcut from Devens' Our First Century (1877)

      
The 1811–1812 New Madrid earthquakes were an intense intraplate earthquake series beginning with an initial earthquake of moment magnitude (7,5 -7,9) on December 16, 1811 followed by a moment magnitude 7,4 aftershock on the same day. They remain the most powerful earthquakes to hit the contiguous United States east of the Rocky Mountains in recorded history. They, as well as the seismic zone of their occurrence, were named for the Mississippi River town of New Madrid, then part of the Louisiana Territory, now within Missouri.

There are estimates that the earthquakes were felt strongly over roughly 130,000 square kilometers, and moderately across nearly 3 million square kilometers. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake, by comparison, was felt moderately over roughly 16,000 km².

  

New Madrid fault and earthquake-prone region considered at high risk today

  

 The three earthquakes and their major aftershocks

• December 16, 1811, 08.15 UTC (2:15 a.m.); (M 7,5 -7,9) epicenter in northeast Arkansas. It caused only slight damage to manmade structures, mainly because of the sparse population in the epicentral area. The future location of Memphis, Tennessee, experienced level IX shaking on the Mercalli intensity scale. A seismic seiche propagated upriver, and Little Prairie (a village that was on the site of the former Fort San Fernando, near the site of present-day Caruthersville, Missouri) was heavily damaged by soil liquefaction.
• December 16, 1811 (aftershock), 14.15 UTC (8:15 a.m.); (M 7,4) epicenter in northeast Arkansas. This shock followed the first earthquake by five hours and was similar in intensity.
• January 23, 1812, 15.00 UTC (9:00 a.m.); (M 7,3 -7,6) epicenter in the Missouri Bootheel. The meizoseismal area was characterized by general ground warping, ejections, fissuring, severe landslides, and caving of stream banks. Johnson and Schweig attributed this earthquake to a rupture on the New Madrid North Fault. This may have placed strain on the Reelfoot Fault.
• February 7, 1812, 09.45 UTC (3:45 a.m.); (M 7,5 -8,0) epicenter near New Madrid, Missouri. New Madrid was destroyed. In St. Louis, Missouri, many houses were severely damaged, and their chimneys were toppled. This shock was definitively attributed to the Reelfoot Fault by Johnston and Schweig. Uplift along a segment of this reverse fault created temporary waterfalls on the Mississippi at Kentucky Bend, created waves that propagated upstream, and caused the formation of Reelfoot Lake by obstructing streams in what is now Lake County, Tennessee.

Susan Hough, a seismologist of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), has estimated the earthquakes' magnitudes as around magnitude 7.

There were many more aftershocks including one magnitude 7 aftershock to December 16, 1811 earthquake which occurred on December 17, 1811 at 0600 UTC (12:00 a.m.) and one magnitude 7 aftershock to February 7, 1812 earthquake which occurred on the same day at 0440 UTC (10:40 p.m.).

  
Eyewitness accounts

John Bradbury, a Fellow of the Linnean Society, was on the Mississippi on the night of December 15, 1811, and describes the tremors in great detail in his Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810 and 1811, published in 1817.

After supper, we went to sleep as usual: about ten o'clock, and in the night I was awakened by the most tremendous noise, accompanied by an agitation of the boat so violent, that it appeared in danger of upsetting ... I could distinctly see the river as if agitated by a storm; and although the noise was inconceivably loud and terrific, I could distinctly hear the crash of falling trees, and the screaming of the wild fowl on the river, but found that the boat was still safe at her moorings.
By the time we could get to our fire, which was on a large flag in the stern of the boat, the shock had ceased; but immediately the perpendicular banks, both above and below us, began to fall into the river in such vast masses, as nearly to sink our boat by the swell they occasioned ... At day-light we had counted twenty-seven shocks.

Eliza Bryan in New Madrid, Territory of Missouri, wrote the following eyewitness account in March 1812.

On the 16th of December, 1811, about two o'clock, a.m., we were visited by a violent shock of an earthquake, accompanied by a very awful noise resembling loud but distant thunder, but more hoarse and vibrating, which was followed in a few minutes by the complete saturation of the atmosphere, with sulphurious vapor, causing total darkness. The screams of the affrighted inhabitants running to and fro, not knowing where to go, or what to do—the cries of the fowls and beasts of every species—the cracking of trees falling, and the roaring of the Mississippi— the current of which was retrograde for a few minutes, owing as is supposed, to an irruption in its bed— formed a scene truly horrible.

John Reynolds (February 26, 1788 – May 8, 1865) who was the 4th governor of Illinois, among other political posts, mentions the earthquake in his biography My Own Times: Embracing Also the History of My Life (1855):

On the night of 16th November [sic], 1811, an earthquake occurred, that produced great consternation amongst the people. The centre of the violence was in New Madrid, Missouri, but the whole valley of the Mississippi was violently agitated. Our family all were sleeping in a log cabin, and my father leaped out of bed crying aloud "the Indians are on the house" ... We laughed at the mistake of my father, but soon found out it was worse than the Indians. Not one in the family knew at the time that it was an earthquake. The next morning another shock made us acquainted with it, so we decided it was an earthquake. The cattle came running home bellowing with fear, and all animals were terribly alarmed on the occasion. Our house cracked and quivered, so we were fearful it would fall to the ground. In the American Bottom many chimneys were thrown down, and the church bell in Cahokia sounded by the agitation of the building. It is said the shock of an earthquake was felt in Kaskaskia in 1804, but I did not perceive it. The shocks continued for years in Illinois, and some have experienced it this year, 1855.

The Shaker diarist Samuel Swan McClelland described the effects of the earthquake on the Shaker settlement at West Union (Busro), Indiana, where the earthquakes contributed to the temporary abandonment of the westernmost Shaker community.

     

Reelfoot Rift

    

Geologic setting

The underlying cause of the earthquakes is not well understood, but modern faulting seems to be related to an ancient geologic feature buried under the Mississippi River alluvial plain, known as the Reelfoot Rift. The New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ) is made up of reactivated faults that formed when what is now North America began to split or rift apart during the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era (about 750 million years ago). Faults were created along the rift and igneous rocks formed from magma that was being pushed towards the surface. The resulting rift system failed but has remained as an aulacogen (a scar or zone of weakness) deep underground.

In recent decades minor earthquakes have continued. The epicenters of over 4,000 earthquakes can be identified from seismic measurements taken since 1974. It can be seen that they originate from the seismic activity of the Reelfoot Rift. The zone which is colored in red on the map is called the New Madrid Seismic Zone. New forecasts estimate a 7 to 10 percent chance, in the next 50 years, of a repeat of a major earthquake like those that occurred in 1811–1812, which likely had magnitudes of between 7,6 and 8,0. There is a 25 to 40 percent chance, in a 50-year time span, of a magnitude 6,0 or greater earthquake.

In a report filed in November 2008, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency warned that a serious earthquake in the New Madrid Seismic Zone could result in "the highest economic losses due to a natural disaster in the United States," further predicting "widespread and catastrophic" damage across Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, and particularly Tennessee, where a 7,7 magnitude quake or greater would cause damage to tens of thousands of structures affecting water distribution, transportation systems, and other vital infrastructure.

    

4000 earthquake reports since 1974

      

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Dan Fogelberg morreu há dezoito anos...

   

Daniel Grayling Fogelberg, mais conhecido como Dan Fogelberg, (Peoria, Illinois, 13 de agosto de 1951 – Deer Isle, Maine, 16 de dezembro de 2007) foi um cantor, compositor e multi-instrumentista dos Estados Unidos da América.

A música de Dan era um misto de várias influências como jazz, clássica e pop. Lançou vários discos mas o seu maior êxito foi Phoenix, de 1979.

Em 2004 foi-lhe diagnosticado cancro da próstata, em estado avançado. Logo foi submetido ao tratamento mas não consegui vencer a doença. Faleceu a 16 de dezembro de 2007, na sua casa, no estado americano do Maine, na companhia da esposa.
 

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O chefe Touro Sentado foi assassinado há 135 anos...

Touro Sentado (em dacota: Tatanka Iyotake; na ortografia padrão do dacota: Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake; em inglês: Sitting Bull; também conhecido como Slon-he ou Slow, "Devagar"; Grand River, Dakota, meados de 1831 – Grand River, South Dakota, 15 de dezembro de 1890) foi um chefe indígena da tribo dos sioux hunkpapa. Viveu entre os anos de 1831 e 1890.

Touro Sentado chegou a ser famoso por conduzir três mil e quinhentos índios sioux e cheyenne contra o Sétimo Regimento de Cavalaria Americana, que estava sob as ordens do general Custer, na batalha de Little Bighorn em 25 de junho de 1876, na qual o exército federal foi derrotado.

Perseguido pelo exército dos Estados Unidos, Touro Sentado levou os seus homens até ao Canadá, onde permaneceram até 1881. Neste ano regressou com a sua tribo aos Estados Unidos para que a sua gente se entregasse e acabasse assim a guerra. Touro Sentado não conseguiu uma porção de terras canadianas, porque a Rainha Vitória o considerava um selvagem dos Estados Unidos.

Nos anos seguintes Touro Sentado fez parte do show de Buffalo Bill.

Touro Sentado teria se sentido atraído pela Dança dos Fantasmas, grupo religioso fundado pelo suposto messias Wovoca. Segundo o profeta, que se dizia o próprio Cristo, a dança faria com que no próximo ano a terra engolisse os homens brancos das terras dos índios. O governo dos Estados Unidos viu nestas danças uma ameaça e enviou uma polícia índia para prender o chefe. Touro Sentado e o seu filho morreram baleados, na luta que se seguiu à tentativa de prisão.

Em sioux, Tatanka Iyotake significa «Búfalo Macho Sentado». O nome de Touro Sentado chegou ao português através da tradução do inglês, Sitting Bull, posto que bull, além de significar touro, utiliza-se para denominar os machos de animais similares aos bois, como os búfalos e bisontes. 

 

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O massacre de Sandy Hook foi há treze anos...

   

O tiroteio na escola primária de Sandy Hook ocorreu a 14 de dezembro de 2012, na escola primária de Sandy Hook, em Newtown, Connecticut, nos Estados Unidos da América.

De acordo com a polícia, o atirador estava armado com várias pistolas 9 milímetros. Este estava vestido de preto, com quatro armas, e usava um colete à prova de bala.

Acredita-se que, pouco antes das 09.30 horas de 14 de dezembro de 2012, Adam Lanza tenha morto a tiro a sua mãe, Nancy Lanza, de 52 anos, na sua casa, em Newtown. Posteriormente os investigadores encontraram o corpo desta, na cama, de pijama, com vestígios de ter apanhado quatro tiros na cabeça. Aparentemente Adam usou depois o carro da mãe para ir até à Sandy Hook Elementary School, onde forçou a entrada dentro da escola usando roupa preta de estilo militar, incluindo colete à prova de bala.

Lanza começou a atirar por volta das 09.35, cerca de meia hora após o início das aulas. Alguns dos presentes relataram que os tiros foram ouvidos pelo interfone, que estava sendo usado para anúncios. A diretora da escola, Dawn Hochsprung, e a psicóloga, Mary Sherlach, estavam numa reunião com vários professores quando os tiros foram ouvidos fora da sala. Hochsprung e Sherlach foram imediatamente para o local de onde vinha o barulho. Diane Day, uma terapeuta da escola, que estava presente nessa reunião, relatou gritos, seguidos por mais tiros. Natalie Hammond, a vice-diretora e professora que também estava presente na reunião do corpo docente, pressionou o seu corpo contra a porta para mantê-la fechada. Hammond foi atingida na perna e no braço e depois foi levada ao Hospital Danbury. Hochsprung e Sherlach foram mortas a tiro, no corredor.

A professora Victoria Soto tentou esconder várias crianças nos armários. Lanza entrou na sala de Soto e colocou a professora entre ele e os seus alunos, e estes foram mortos. Lauren Rousseau, uma professora substituta desde outubro, recebeu tiros no rosto e acabou por morrer. O corpo de Anne Marie Murphy foi encontrado na sua sala de aula, entre os corpos dos seus alunos, numa posição de proteção.

Noutra parte da escola, um zelador correu pelos corredores alertando as pessoas nas salas de aula. A professora do primeiro ano Kaitlyn Roig, de 29 anos, escondeu catorze estudantes numa casa de banho e colocou barreiras na porta, dizendo para ficarem tranquilos, a fim de mantê-los seguros. Maryann Jacob, secretária da escola, instruiu dezoito crianças que estavam na biblioteca para rastejarem para dentro duma sala, colocando um armário na porta. Laura Feinstein colocou dentro dois alunos que estavam fora das suas salas de aula e, juntos, esconderam-se debaixo de mesas após ouvirem os tiros. Feinstein fez duas chamadas, uma para a secretaria da escola e a outra, sem sucesso, para o 911 (número de emergência). Aproximadamente 40 minutos depois foram levados para fora da sala.

Lanza parou de atirar entre as 09.46 e as 09.53, após ter disparado entre 50 a 100 tiros. Todas as vítimas foram baleadas várias vezes e pelo menos uma vítima foi baleada onze vezes. A maior parte do tiroteio aconteceu em duas salas de aula do primeiro ano, com quinze mortos numa sala e cinco na outra. As crianças mortas tinham entre seis e sete anos de idade - oito meninos e doze meninas. Todos os seis adultos mortos eram mulheres que trabalhavam na escola. Um total de vinte e oito pessoas foram baleadas mortalmente pela manhã, incluindo Lanza, que se suicidou com um tiro na cabeça quando os socorristas chegaram à escola.

Os corpos das vítimas foram retirados da escola e identificados durante a noite posterior ao tiroteio. O médico legista disse que todas as mortes foram homicídios causados por múltiplos tiros. Os números oficiais referem 28 vítimas mortais, incluindo 20 crianças. Uma pessoa ficou ferida.

Vítimas

Crianças

• Olivia Engel, 7 anos

• Emilie Parker, 7 anos

• Grace McDonnell, 7 anos

• Noah Pozner, 6 anos

• Ana M. Marquez-Greene, 6 anos

• Catherine V. Hubbard, 7 anos

• Chase Kowalski, 7 anos

• Jesse Lewis, 6 anos

• Charlotte Bacon, 6 anos

• Dylan Hockley, 6 anos

• Caroline Previdi, 6 anos

• Benjamin Wheeler, 6 anos

• Daniel Barden, 7 anos

• Jack Pinto, 6 anos

• Jessica Rekos, 7 anos

• Josephine Gay, 7 anos

• Madeleine F. Hsu, 6 anos

• James Mattioli, 6 anos

• Avielle Richman, 6 anos

• Allison N. Wyatt, 6 anos

 

Adultos

• Rachel Davino, 29 anos, professora

• Anne Marie Murphy, 52 anos, professora

• Victoria Soto, 27 anos, professora

• Mary Sherlach, 56 anos, psicóloga

• Lauren Rousseau, 30 anos, professora

• Dawn Hocksprung, 47 anos, diretora da escola

• Nancy Lanza, 52 anos, mãe de Adam Lanza (atirador)

• Adam Lanza, 20 anos, autor do tiroteio

Adam Lanza

  
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Louis Agassiz morreu há 152 anos...

Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (Môtier, 18 de maio de 1807 - Cambridge, 14 de dezembro de 1873) foi um zoólogo e geólogo suíço, famoso pela sua Expedição Thayer.

Louis Agassiz nasceu em Môtier (Vully), no Cantão de Friburgo, Suíça. O início da sua educação começou em casa, seguido de quatro anos numa escola secundária em Bienne (alemão Biel), completou os seus estudos elementares na academia de Lausanne. Selecionando a medicina como a sua profissão, estudou nas universidades de Zurique, Heidelberg e Munique. Em seguida aumentou o seu conhecimento nos processos biológicos, especialmente na Botânica. Em 1829, doutorou-se em Erlangen e em 1830 doutorou-se em Medicina em Munique.

Mudou-se para Paris e ficou sobre a tutela de Alexander von Humboldt e de Georges Cuvier, que o lançaram nas suas carreiras da Geologia e do Zoologia respetivamente. Até esta altura não prestou nenhuma atenção especial ao estudo da Ictiologia, a qual se transformou na grande ocupação de sua vida, ou pelo menos na área em que atualmente é mais recordado.

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In 1832 he was appointed professor of natural history in the University of Neuchâtel. The fossil fish there soon attracted his attention. The fossil-rich stones furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte Bolca were known at the time, but very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific study of them. Agassiz, as early as 1829, planned the publication of the work which, more than any other, laid the foundation of his worldwide fame. Five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons fossiles ("Research on Fossil Fish") appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843. They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly by Joseph Dinkel. In gathering materials for this work Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him. They had known him for seven years at the time.

Agassiz found that his palaeontological labours made necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fish. They consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, even the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He therefore adopted a classification which divided fish into four groups: Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal appendages. While Agassiz did much to place the subject on a scientific basis, this classification has been superseded by later work.

As Agassiz's descriptive work proceeded, it became obvious that it would over-tax his resources unless financial assistance could be found. The British Association came to his aid, and the Earl of Ellesmere — then Lord Francis Egerton — gave him yet more efficient help. The 1,290 original drawings made for the work were purchased by the Earl, and presented by him to the Geological Society of London. In 1836 the Wollaston Medal was awarded to Agassiz by the council of that society for his work on fossil ichthyology; and in 1838 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society. Meanwhile invertebrate animals engaged his attention. In 1837 he issued the "Prodrome" of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1839–40 he published two quarto volumes on the fossil Echinoderms of Switzerland; and in 1840–45 he issued his Etudes critiques sur les mollusques fossiles ("Critical Studies on Fossil Mollusks").

Before his first visit to England in 1834, the labours of Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the remarkable fish of the Old Red Sandstone of the northeast of Scotland. The strange forms of the Pterichthys, the Coccosteus and other genera were then made known to geologists for the first time. They were of intense interest to Agassiz, and formed the subject of a special monograph by him published in 1844–45: Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie ("Monograph on Fossil Fish of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian System of the British Isles and of Russia"). In the early stages of his career in Neuchatel, Agassiz also made a name for himself as a man who could run a scientific department well. Under his care, the University of Neuchâtel soon became a leading institution for scientific inquiry.

In 1837 Agassiz was the first to scientifically propose that the Earth had been subject to a past ice age. In the same year, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Prior to this proposal, Goethe, de Saussure, Venetz, Jean de Charpentier, Karl Friedrich Schimper and others had made the glaciers of the Alps the subjects of special study, and Goethe, Charpentier as well as Schimper had even arrived at the conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura Mountains had been moved there by glaciers. The question having attracted the attention of Agassiz, he not only discussed it with Charpentier and Schimper and made successive journeys to the alpine regions in company with them, but he had a hut constructed upon one of the Aar Glaciers, which for a time he made his home, in order to investigate the structure and movements of the ice.

These labours resulted, in 1840, in the publication of his work in two volumes entitled Etudes sur les glaciers ("Study on Glaciers"). In it he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks over which they travelled, and in producing the striations and roches moutonnees seen in Alpine-style landscapes. He not only accepted Charpentier's and Schimper's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide plains and valleys drained by the Aar and the Rhône, but he went still farther. He concluded that, in the relatively recent past, Switzerland had been another Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers stretching across the areas referred to, one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher Alps, had extended over the entire valley of northwestern Switzerland until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, which, though they checked and deflected its further extension, did not prevent the ice from reaching in many places the summit of the range. The publication of this work gave a fresh impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world.

Thus familiarized with the phenomena associated with the movements of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a discovery which he made in 1840, in conjunction with William Buckland. The two visited the mountains of Scotland together, and found in different locations clear evidence of ancient glacial action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society of London in successive communications. The mountainous districts of England, Wales, and Ireland were also considered to constitute centres for the dispersion of glacial debris; and Agassiz remarked "that great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland, once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel (boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general produced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent surface, etc."

In 1842–1846 he issued his Nomenclator Zoologicus, a classified list, with references, of all names employed in zoology for genera and groups — a work of great labour and research. With the aid of a grant of money from the King of Prussia, Agassiz crossed the Atlantic in the autumn of 1846 with the twin purposes of investigating the natural history and geology of North America and delivering a course of 12 lectures on “The Plan of Creation as shown in the Animal Kingdom,” by invitation from J. A. Lowell, at the Lowell Institute in Boston, Massachusetts. The financial and scientific advantages presented to him in the United States induced him to settle there, where he remained to the end of his life. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1846.

His engagement for the Lowell Institute lectures precipitated the establishment of the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University in 1847 with him as its head. Harvard appointed him professor of zoology and geology, and he founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology there in 1859 serving as the museum's first director until his death in 1873. During his tenure at Harvard, he was, among many other things, an early student of the effect of the last Ice Age on North America.

He continued his lectures for the Lowell Institute. In succeeding years, he gave series of lectures on “Ichthyology” (1847–48 season), “Comparative Embryology” (1848–49), “Functions of Life in Lower Animals” (1850–51), “Natural History” (1853–54), “Methods of Study in Natural History” (1861–62), “Glaciers and the Ice Period” (1864–65), “Brazil” (1866–67) and “Deep Sea Dredging” (1869–70). In 1850 he married an American college teacher, Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz, who later wrote introductory books about natural history and, after his death, a lengthy biography of her husband.

Agassiz served as a non-resident lecturer at Cornell while also being on faculty at Harvard. In 1852 he accepted a medical professorship of comparative anatomy at Charlestown, Massachusetts, but he resigned in two years. From this time his scientific studies dropped off, but he was a profound influence on the American branches of his two fields, teaching decades worth of future prominent scientists, including Alpheus Hyatt, David Starr Jordan, Joel Asaph Allen, Joseph Le Conte, Ernest Ingersoll, William James, Nathaniel Shaler, Samuel Hubbard Scudder, Alpheus Packard, and his son Alexander Agassiz, among others. He had a profound impact on the paleontologist Charles Doolittle Walcott. In return his name appears attached to several species, as well as here and there throughout the American landscape, notably Lake Agassiz, the Pleistocene precursor to Lake Winnipeg and the Red River.

During this time he grew in fame even in the public consciousness, becoming one of the best-known scientists in the world. By 1857 he was so well-loved that his friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz" in his honor. His own writing continued with four (of a planned ten) volumes of Natural History of the United States which were published from 1857 to 1862. During this time he also published a catalog of papers in his field, Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae, in four volumes between 1848 and 1854.

Stricken by ill health in the 1860s, he resolved to return to the field for relaxation and to resume his studies of Brazilian fish. In April 1865 he led a party to Brazil. Returning home in August 1866, an account of this expedition, entitled A Journey in Brazil, was published in 1868. In December 1871 he made a second eight month excursion, known as the Hassler expedition under the command of Commander Philip Carrigan Johnson (brother of Eastman Johnson), visiting South America on its southern Atlantic and Pacific seaboards. The ship explored the Magellan Strait, which drew the praise of Charles Darwin.

Elizabeth Aggasiz wrote, at the Strait: '…the Hassler pursued her course, past a seemingly endless panorama of mountains and forests rising into the pale regions of snow and ice, where lay glaciers in which every rift and crevasse, as well as the many cascades flowing down to join the waters beneath, could be counted as she steamed by them.... These were weeks of exquisite delight to Agassiz. The vessel often skirted the shore so closely that its geology could be studied from the deck.'

   

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Dionne Warwick clebra hoje oitenta e cinco anos

    

Marie Dionne Warwick (East Orange, Nova Jérsei, 12 de dezembro de 1940) é uma cantora norte-americana. Era prima de primeiro grau de Whitney Houston e era irmã de Dee Dee Warwick e sobrinha de Cissy Houston. Ganhou fama como a intérprete preferida dos compositores Burt Bacharach e Hal David, pois ambos a presentearam com uma série de sucessos. Com mais de 50 anos de carreira, estima-se que tenha vendido mais de 100 milhões de cópias dos seus discos.    

  

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A Espanha livrou-se dos restos do seu império, nas Caraíbas e Pacífico, há 127 anos

       

O Tratado de Paris de 1898, assinado em 10 de dezembro de 1898, terminou a Guerra Hispano-Americana.

    

(...)

    

O Tratado de Paris previa que Cuba se tornasse independente de Espanha, mas o Congresso dos Estados Unidos assegurou o controle deste país pelos Estados Unidos, com a Emenda Platt.

Especificamente, a Espanha renunciou a qualquer reivindicação de soberania sobre Cuba. Após a evacuação pela Espanha, Cuba seria ocupada pelos Estados Unidos, e os Estados Unidos iriam assumir e respeitar todas as obrigações de direito internacional que resultassem deste facto.

O Tratado também garantiu que a Espanha cedia aos Estados Unidos a ilha de Porto Rico e outras ilhas, então sob soberania espanhola nas Índias Ocidentais, bem como a ilha de Guam.

O maior conflito dizia a respeito à situação das Filipinas. Os comissários espanhóis alegaram que Manila fora entregue após o armistício e, portanto, as Filipinas não poderiam ser exigidas como uma conquista de guerra, pois renderam-se depois do fim da guerra; finalmente, os Estados Unidos decidiram pagar 20 milhões de dólares à Espanha pela posse das Filipinas. O Tratado especificava que a Espanha iria ceder aos Estados Unidos o arquipélago das Filipinas e as ilhas situadas dentro duma linha especificada.

O tratado foi tema de debate polémico no Senado dos Estados Unidos, durante o inverno de 1898-1899, e foi aprovado a 6 de fevereiro de 1899.

De acordo com o tratado, a Espanha, desistia de todos os direitos de Cuba, renunciava a Porto Rico e às suas possessões nas Índias Ocidentais e entregava as Filipinas, mais a ilha de Guam, aos Estados Unidos.

A derrota pôs fim ao Império espanhol na América e, um ano mais tarde, no Oceano Pacífico (depois do Tratado Germano-Espanhol de 1899) e marcou o início dos Estados Unidos como potência colonial.

    

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José Rodrigues Miguéis nasceu há 124 anos...

    
José Claudino Rodrigues Miguéis (Lisboa, 9 de dezembro de 1901 - Nova Iorque, 27 de outubro de 1980) foi um escritor português.

 

Nascido no número 12 da Rua da Saudade, no bairro típico de Alfama, passou a sua infância e juventude em Lisboa, recordações que marcarão a sua futura obra. Nasceu a 9 de dezembro de 1901 e foi batizado, na igreja de Santiago, a 21 de setembro de 1902, como filho de D. Manuel Migueis Pombo, um empregado galego natural de Borbén, província de Pontevedra, e D. Adelaide Rodrigues Migueis, doméstica, natural da freguesia e concelho de Góis.

Ainda em Lisboa viria a formar-se em Direito, em 1924. Em 1925, foi delegado do procurador da República em Setúbal. De novo em Lisboa, foi professor de História e Geografia no Liceu Gil Vicente. Consagrou a sua vida à Literatura e à Pedagogia. Em 1929, vai para Bruxelas, onde vem a licenciar-se, em 1933, em Ciências Pedagógicas na Universidade Livre de Bruxelas com uma bolsa da Junta de Educação Nacional, tendo posteriormente dirigido, com Raul Brandão, um conjunto inacabado de Leituras Primárias, obra que nunca viria a ser aprovada pelo governo. Em Bruxelas, conheceu a primeira mulher, a professora Pesea Cogan Portnoi (Chisinau, circa 1909), filha de Silinna Cogan Portnoi e de Risca Lura, naturais de Quixinau, com quem casou civilmente, em Lisboa, a 22 de setembro de 1932. Por sentença de 24 de fevereiro de 1940, os dois divorciaram-se litigiosamente, a requerimento de José Rodrigues Miguéis.

José Rodrigues Miguéis pertenceu ao chamado grupo Seara Nova, ao lado de grandes autores como Jaime Cortesão, António Sérgio, José Gomes Ferreira, Irene Lisboa ou Raul Proença. Colaborou em diversos jornais como O Diabo, Diário Popular, Diário de Lisboa e República. Em 1931, após polémica interna, afasta-se do grupo Seara Nova. Em 1932, estreou-se como escritor com a novela Páscoa Feliz, que recebeu o Prémio Literário da Casa da Imprensa. Novamente em Lisboa vindo de Bruxelas, foi, juntamente com Bento de Jesus Caraça, diretor de O Globo, semanário que viria a ser proibido pela censura em 1933. Segundo os linguistas Óscar Lopes e António José Saraiva, a sua obra pode ser considerada como realismo ético, sendo claras as influências de autores como Dostoiévsky ou o seu amigo Raul Brandão. De resto, parecem claras nas suas primeiras obras as influências estéticas da Presença, podendo ler-se nas entrelinhas das suas obras simpatias com as temáticas neo-realistas portuguesas. Segundo António Ventura, José Rodrigues Miguéis tinha aderido ao Partido Comunista Português nos anos trinta, antes de emigrar para os EUA, em 1935, e viria a ser nomeado representante do PCP junto do PCEUA.  Tem obras traduzidas em inglês, italiano, alemão, russo, checo, francês e polaco. Herdando do pai as ideias republicanas e progressistas, cedo entrou em conflito com o Estado Novo, o que acabaria por levá-lo ao exílio para os Estados Unidos a partir de 1935, onde fundou, em Nova Iorque, o Clube Operário Português. Nos Estados Unidos, trabalhou como tradutor e redator das Selecções do Reader's Digest. A 6 de junho de 1940, casou segunda vez, em Nova Iorque, com Camilla Pitta Campanella, uma cidadã luso-americana.

Desde essa altura até à sua morte apenas voltaria pontualmente a Portugal, não passando no seu país natal períodos superiores a três anos. Em 1942, viria a adquirir a nacionalidade americana. Entre 1949 e 1950, viveu no Rio de Janeiro. Em 1960, estando em Portugal desde 1957, recebeu o Prémio Camilo Castelo Branco, da Sociedade Portuguesa de Escritores, pela sua obra Léah e Outras Histórias. Em 1961 foi eleito membro da Hispanic Society of America e, em 1976, tornou-se membro da Academia das Ciências de Lisboa. Um ano antes do seu falecimento foi agraciado, a 3 de setembro de 1979, com o grau de Grande-Oficial da Ordem Militar de Sant'Iago da Espada.  Morreu em Nova Iorque, a 27 de outubro de 1980, vítima de ataque cardíaco, tendo o seu corpo sido cremado em Manhattan. Em 1982, a sua viúva traz as cinzas para Lisboa, onde as depositou num monumento fúnebre em honra de José Rodrigues Miguéis, no Cemitério do Alto de São João. Mário Neves publicou uma biografia sua em 1990.

        

Obras

• Páscoa feliz (Novela), 1932;
• Onde a noite se acaba (Contos e Novelas), 1946;
• Saudades para Dona Genciana (Conto), 1956;
• O Natal do clandestino (Conto), 1957;
• Uma aventura inquietante (Romance), 1958;
• Léah e outras histórias (Contos e Novelas), 1958;
• Um homem sorri à morte com meia cara (Narrativa), 1959;
• A escola do paraíso (Romance), 1960;
• O passageiro do Expresso (Teatro), 1960;
• Gente da terceira classe (Contos e Novelas), 1962;
• É proibido apontar. Reflexões de um burguês - I (Crónicas), 1964;
• A Múmia, 1971;
  
• Nikalai! Nikalai! (Romance), 1971;
• O espelho poliédrico (Crónicas), 1972;
• Comércio com o inimigo (Contos), 1973;
• As harmonias do "Canelão". Reflexões de um burguês - II (Crónicas), 1974;
• O milagre segundo Salomé, 2 vols. (Romance), 1975;
• O pão não cai do céu (Romance), 1981;
• Passos confusos (Contos), 1982;
• Arroz do céu (Conto), 1983;
• O Anel de Contrabando, 1984;
• Uma flor na campa de Raul Proença, 1985;
• Idealista no mundo real, 1991;
• Aforismos & desaforismos de Aparício, 1996.

    

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Nicki Minaj - 43 anos

 
Onika Tanya Maraj (Port of Spain, 8 de dezembro de 1982), mais conhecida como Nicki Minaj, é uma rapper, cantora, compositora e atriz nascida em Trinidad e Tobago e naturalizada norte americana.

     

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Hoje é dia de ouvir Tom Waits...

Tom Waits nasceu há setenta e seis anos

Thomas Alan Waits (Pomona, 7 de dezembro de 1949) é um músico, instrumentista, compositor, cantor e ator norte-americano. A sua voz, grossa e rouca, e as suas letras, por vezes estranhas e intrigantes, marcam a sua música. Ativo há mais de quatro décadas, Waits possui uma considerável obra, constituída de quase 30 álbuns (incluindo álbuns de estúdio, compilações e álbuns ao vivo), e mais de 50 participações diretas (como ator) e indiretas (compondo bandas sonoras) em filmes. Já foi nomeado para um grande número de prémios musicais, tendo ganhado o Grammy com dois álbuns: Mule Variations e Bone Machine.

Waits atualmente vive no condado de Sonoma, Califórnia, com a sua esposa, Kathleen Brennan, e os seus três filhos.

       

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Música de aniversariante de hoje...!

Sara Bareilles comemora hoje 45 anos...!

  
Sara Beth Bareilles (Eureka, California, December 7, 1979) is an American singer-songwriter and actress. Her 2007 hit single "Love Song" reached no. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. In the third season of NBC's The Sing-Off, Bareilles served as a celebrity judge alongside Ben Folds and Shawn Stockman. She composed music and wrote lyrics for the Broadway musical Waitress, for which she earned a Tony Award nomination for Best Original Score in 2016, and a Grammy nomination for Best Musical Theatre Album. In April 2018, Bareilles received acclaim for her portrayal of Mary Magdalene in NBC's adaptation of a classic Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice rock opera, Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert, for which she was nominated for the 2018 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie.

Bareilles has sold over one million albums and over nine million singles and downloads in the United States and has earned seven Grammy Award nominations, including one Album of the Year nomination for The Blessed Unrest (2013). In February 2012, VH1 placed Bareilles in the 80th spot of the Top 100 Greatest Women in Music. Her memoir, Sounds Like Me: My Life (So Far) in Song, was published in 2015; The New York Times listed it as a bestseller.

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Ira Gershwin nasceu há 129 anos...

 

Ira Gershwin (Nova Iorque, 6 de dezembro de 1896 - Beverly Hills, 17 de agosto de 1983) foi um letrista norte-americano que colaborou com o seu irmão mais novo, o compositor George Gershwin, na criação de algumas das mais importantes canções do século XX.

Com George escreveu as letras para vários espetáculos para a Broadway, incluindo canções como "I Got Rhythm", "Embraceable You", "The Man I Love" e "Someone to Watch Over Me", além da ópera Porgy and Bess.

Com George, ele escreveu mais de uma dúzia de shows da Broadway, apresentando canções como "I Got Rhythm", "Embraceable You", "The Man I Love" e "Someone to Watch Over Me". Ele também foi responsável, juntamente com DuBose Heyward, pelo libreto da ópera Porgy and Bess de George.

O sucesso que os irmãos Gershwin tiveram com os seus trabalhos colaborativos muitas vezes ofuscou o papel criativo que Ira desempenhou. O seu domínio da composição continuou, no entanto, após a morte prematura de George. Ele escreveu canções de sucesso adicionais com os compositores Jerome Kern, Kurt Weill, Harry Warren e Harold Arlen.

O seu livro de 1959 aclamado pela crítica, Lyrics on Various Occasions, um amálgama de autobiografia e antologia comentada, é uma fonte importante para estudar a arte do letrista na era de ouro da canção popular americana. 

 

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A Emenda Constitucional que acabou com a escravatura nos Estados Unidos foi aprovada há 160 anos

  

A Décima Terceira Emenda da constituição dos Estados Unidos da América (em inglês: The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) aboliu oficialmente e continua a proibir em território norte-americano a escravatura e a servidão involuntária, exceto essa última como punição por um crime. Foi aprovada pelo Senado em 8 de abril de 1864, aprovada pela Câmara em 31 de janeiro de 1865 e aprovado em 6 de dezembro de 1865. Foi então declarada por anúncio do Secretário de Estado William Seward, em 18 de dezembro. Foi a primeira das emendas da Reconstrução.

A emenda esta assim redigida:

  

Emenda XIII

Secção 1

Não haverá, nos Estados Unidos ou em qualquer lugar sujeito à sua jurisdição, nem escravatura, nem trabalhos forçados, salvo como punição de um crime pelo qual o réu tenha sido devidamente condenado.

Secção 2

O Congresso terá competência para fazer executar este artigo por meio das leis necessárias.

   

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A Lei Seca norte-americana acabou há 92 anos...!

Pre-Prohibition saloons were mostly male establishments; post-Prohibition bars catered to both males and females

       

The Twenty-first Amendment (Amendment XXI) to the United States Constitution repealed the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which had mandated nationwide Prohibition on alcohol on January 17, 1920. The Twenty-first amendment was ratified on December 5, 1933. It is unique among the 27 Amendments of the U.S. Constitution for being the only one to repeal a previous Amendment, and for being the only one to have been ratified by the method of the state ratifying convention.

   

Text

Section 1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

Section 2. The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

  

Backgroud

The Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution had ushered in a period of time known as Prohibition, during which the manufacture, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages was illegal. Passage of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919 was the crowning achievement of the temperance movement, but it soon proved highly unpopular. Crime rates soared under Prohibition as gangsters, such as Chicago's Al Capone, became rich from a profitable, often violent, black market for alcohol. The federal government was incapable of stemming the tide: enforcement of the Volstead Act proved to be a nearly impossible task and corruption was rife among law enforcement agencies. In 1932, wealthy industrialist John D. Rockefeller, Jr. stated in a letter:

When Prohibition was introduced, I hoped that it would be widely supported by public opinion and the day would soon come when the evil effects of alcohol would be recognized. I have slowly and reluctantly come to believe that this has not been the result. Instead, drinking has generally increased; the speakeasy has replaced the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has appeared; many of our best citizens have openly ignored Prohibition; respect for the law has been greatly lessened; and crime has increased to a level never seen before.

As more and more Americans opposed the Eighteenth Amendment, a political movement grew for its repeal. However, repeal was complicated by grassroots politics. Although the U.S. Constitution provides two methods for ratifying constitutional amendments, only one method had been used up until that time; and that was for ratification by the state legislatures of three-fourths of the states. However, the wisdom of the day was that the lawmakers of many states were either beholden to or simply fearful of the temperance lobby. For that reason, when Congress formally proposed the repeal of Prohibition on February 20, 1933 (with the requisite two-thirds having voted in favor in each house; 63 to 21 in the United States Senate and 289 to 121 in the United States House of Representatives), they chose the other ratification method established by Article V, that being via state conventions. The Twenty-first Amendment is, thus far in American history, the only constitutional amendment ratified by state conventions rather than by the state legislatures.

    

Proposal and ratification

The Congress proposed the Twenty-first Amendment on February 20, 1933.

The proposed amendment was adopted on December 5, 1933. It is the only amendment to have been ratified by state ratifying conventions, specially selected for the purpose. All other amendments have been ratified by state legislatures. It is also the only amendment that was approved for the explicit purpose of repealing a previously-existing amendment to the Constitution. The Twenty-first Amendment ending national prohibition became officially effective on December 15, though people started drinking openly before that date.

    

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