Há dezasseis anos um terramoto arrasou Port-au-Prince, a capital do Haiti...

Porto Príncipe: uma das áreas atingidas pelo sismo de 12 de janeiro de 2010

  

Localização do epicentro do sismo e a extensão do raio de intensidade do sismo
Epicentro	18° 27' 25,2" N 72° 31' 58,8" O
Profundidade	10 km
Magnitude	7,0 MW
Intensidade máx.	X (destruidor)
Data	12 de janeiro de 2010
Zonas mais atingidas	Haiti República Dominicana  Cuba  Jamaica  Bahamas
Vítimas	100 000 - 316 000 mortos, 350 000 feridos e mais de 1,5 milhão de flagelados, 4 mil amputações

 

O sismo do Haiti de 2010 foi um terramoto catastrófico que teve o seu epicentro na parte oriental da península de Tiburon, a cerca de 25 km da capital haitiana, Porto Príncipe (Port-au-Prince), foi registado às 16.53.10 da hora local (21.53.10 UTC), na terça-feira, 12 de janeiro de 2010. O abalo alcançou a magnitude 7,0 M_w e ocorreu a uma profundidade de 10 km. O Serviço Geológico dos Estados Unidos registou uma série de pelo menos 33 réplicas, 14 das quais eram de magnitude 5,0M_w a 5,9M_w. O Comité Internacional da Cruz Vermelha estima que cerca de três milhões de pessoas foram afetadas pelo sismo; o Ministro do Interior do Haiti, Paul Antoine Bien-Aimé, antecipou em 15 de janeiro que o desastre teria tido como consequência a morte de 100.000 a 200.000 pessoas.

O terramoto causou grandes danos a Port-au-Prince, Jacmel e outros locais da região. Milhares de edifícios, incluindo os elementos mais significativos do património da capital, como o Palácio Presidencial, o edifício do Parlamento, a Catedral de Notre-Dame de Port-au-Prince, a principal prisão do país e todos os hospitais, foram destruídas ou gravemente danificadas. A Organização das Nações Unidas informou que a sede da Missão das Nações Unidas para a estabilização no Haiti (MINUSTAH), localizada na capital, desabou e que um grande número de funcionários da ONU havia desaparecido. A morte do Chefe da Missão, Hédi Annabi, foi confirmada a 13 de janeiro pelo presidente René Préval.

Muitos países responderam aos apelos pela ajuda humanitária, prometendo fundos, expedições de resgate, equipes médicas e engenheiros. Sistemas de comunicação, transportes aéreos, terrestres e aquáticos, hospitais, e redes elétricas foram danificados pelo sismo, o que dificultou a ajuda nos resgates e de suporte; confusões sobre o comando das operações, o congestionamento do tráfego aéreo, e problemas com a priorização de voos dificultou ainda mais os trabalhos de socorro. As morgues de Port-au-Prince foram rapidamente esmagadas; o governo haitiano anunciou em 21 de janeiro que cerca de 80 mil corpos foram enterrados em valas comuns. Com a diminuição dos resgates, as assistências médicas e sanitárias tornaram-se prioritárias. Os atrasos na distribuição de ajuda levaram a apelos raivosos de trabalhadores humanitários e sobreviventes, e alguns furtos e violências esporádicos foram observados.

   

Antecedentes

A Ilha de São Domingos é sismologicamente ativa e já experimentou tremores significativamente destrutivos. Ocorreu um terramoto em 1751, quando a ilha ainda estava sob domínio francês, e outro em 1770. De acordo com o historiador francês Moreau de Saint-Méry (1750–1819), "apenas um edifício de alvenaria não desabou" em Port-au-Prince após o sismo de 18 de outubro de 1751, porém "a cidade inteira desmoronou" durante o terramoto de 3 de junho de 1770. Um outro abalo atingiu a cidade de Cap-Haïtien e outras cidades na parte norte do Haiti e da República Dominicana, destruídas a 7 de maio de 1842. Em 1946, um sismo de magnitude 8,0 M_w atingiu a República Dominicana e também atingiu o Haiti, produzindo uma tsunami que matou  1.790 pessoas e feriu muitas outras.

Num estudo de risco de terramoto, em 1992, feito por C. DeMets e M. Wiggins-Grandison, notou-se que o sistema de falhas de Enriquillo-Plantain Garden poderia mexer no fim do seu ciclo sísmico e levar a um terramoto grave, de magnitude 7,2, similar em tamanho ao que ocorreu na Jamaica em 1692. Paul Mann e a sua equipa de geólogos apresentaram uma avaliação de risco do sistema de falhas Enriquillo-Plantain Garden à 18ª Conferência Geológica Caribenha, em março de 2008, observando a grande tensão acumulada (equivalente a um terremoto de 7,2 M_w); a equipa recomendou "grande prioridade" em termos de estudos geológicos históricos e políticos das Caraíbas, incluindo a utilização de tropas cubanas lideradas por Fidel Castro, até que a falha seja totalmente preenchida e recordou alguns poucos terramotos nos últimos 40 anos. Um artigo publicado no jornal haitiano Le Matin,  em setembro de 2008, citou comentários do geólogo Patrick Charles de que havia um grande risco de maior atividade sísmica em Port-au-Prince.

O Haiti é o país mais pobre da América. O país localiza-se na posição 149ª, em 182 países, no Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano. Há uma preocupação sobre a capacidade dos serviços de emergência para lidar com uma catástrofe de grandes proporções, e o país é considerado "economicamente vulnerável" pela Organização das Nações Unidas para a Alimentação e a Agricultura. Além disso, a nação foi atingida por vários furacões, causando inundações e danos generalizados, mais recentemente em 2008 com a Tempestade tropical Fay e o Furacão Gustav, induzindo o jornalista do Miami Herald Leonard Pitts, Jr. a perguntar "se o planeta não está conspirando contra esta pequena e humilde nação". 

   

O Palácio Presidencial do Haiti, que foi destruído pelo sismo

  
Geologia

O sismo ocorrido a 12 de janeiro de 2010, a cerca de 25 km a sudoeste de Port-au-Prince, à profundidade de 10 km, às 16.53 UTC-5, sobre um sistema de falhas. Foi um forte tremor, com intensidade VII-IX na escala de Mercalli Modificada, que foi registado em Port-au-Prince e nos seus subúrbios. Ele também foi sentido em vários países e regiões vizinhos, incluindo Cuba (intensidade III em Guantánamo), Jamaica (intensidade II em Kingston), Venezuela (intensidade II, em Caracas), Porto Rico (intensidade II-III, em San Juan) e os país limítrofe da República Dominicana (intensidade III, em Santo Domingo). O Pacific Tsunami Warning Center emitiu um alerta de tsunami depois do terramoto, mas cancelou-o, pouco depois. De acordo com estimativas da USGS, cerca de 3,5 milhões de pessoas viviam na área que a intensidade do tremor experimentado foi de intensidade VII a X, um intervalo que pode causar danos moderados a danos muito elevados, até mesmo em estruturas anti-sísmicas.
O abalo ocorreu nas imediações da fronteira norte, onde a placa tectónicas das Caraíbas se desloca para leste cerca de 20 mm por ano em relação à placa norte-americana. O sistema de falhas na região tem duas principais no Haiti, a falha de Septentrional-Orient no norte e na Falha de Enriquillo-Plantain Garden no sul, tanto a sua localização e o mecanismo focal sugerem que o terramoto de janeiro de 2010 foi causado pela rutura da Falha de Enriquillo-Plantain Garden, que tinha estado bloqueada durante 250 anos, com aumento de stress. O stress acabaria por ter sido dispersado, quer por um grande terremoto ou uma série de outras menores. A rutura deste terramoto de magnitude de M_w 7.0 foi de cerca de 65 quilómetros de comprimento, com deslizamento médio de 1,8 metros. A análise preliminar da distribuição de deslizamento encontradas nas amplitudes de até cerca de 4 metros, utilizando registos de movimento de terra de todo o mundo.
Um estudo de 2006 pelos peritos de terremoto C. DeMets e M. Wiggins-Grandison notaram que a zona da Falha de Enriquillo-Plantain Garden poderia estar no final do seu ciclo de atividade sísmica e a previsão de um cenário de, no pior caso, de um terremoto de magnitude de 7,2 (semelhante em tamanho ao sismo da Jamaica de 1692). Paul Mann e um grupo, incluindo a equipe de estudo de 2006 apresentou uma avaliação do risco do sistema de falhas de Jardim Enriquillo-Plantain ao 18ª Conferência Geológica do Caribe, realizada em março de 2008, observou a tensão grande (equivalente a um total 7,2 M_w de terremoto), a equipa recomendou "alta prioridade" para a possibilidade de uma rutura histórica defendida por alguns estudos geológicos, como a falha totalmente bloqueada e havia alguns terremotos nos últimos 40 anos. Um artigo publicado no jornal Le Matin do Haiti, em setembro de 2008, citou os comentários do geólogo Charles Patrick no sentido de que havia um risco elevado de atividade sísmica importante em Port-au-Prince.

  

Mapa da intensidade sísmica (USGS)

      

Réplicas
O United States Geological Survey (USGS) registou seis réplicas nas duas horas após o terremoto principal, de magnitudes de 5,9 a 4,5. Nas primeiras nove horas, 26 abalos de magnitude 4,2 ou superior foram registados, 12 dos quais foram de magnitude 5,0 ou superior.
Em 20 de janeiro, às 11:03 UTC, o tremor mais forte desde o terramoto, de magnitude 5,9 M_w, atingiu o Haiti.
O Geological Survey dos Estados Unidos informou que o seu epicentro foi a cerca de 56 quilómetros a sudoeste de Port-au-Prince, o que a colocaria quase exatamente sob a cidade de Petit-Goâve. Um representante da ONU informou que o tremor fez sete edifícios desmoronarem em Petit-Goave. Trabalhadores de uma ONG, a Save the Children relataram ter ouvido "já enfraquecida estruturas em colapso", mas a maioria das fontes relatam nenhum dano mais significativo para a infraestrutura em Port-au -Prince. Outras vítimas provavelmente foram mínimas, pois as pessoas estavam a dormir a céu aberto.
      

Tsunami 

Quase duas semanas após o sismo foi relatado que a praia da vila piscatória de Petit Paradis foi atingida por um tsunami que submergiu a comunidade costeira logo após o terremoto. Quatro pessoas foram arrastadas para o mar pelas ondas. Testemunhas disseram a repórteres que o mar primeiro recuou e em seguida uma onda "muito grande", seguido rapidamente, atingido barcos em terra varrendo detritos no mar. O solo na área tinha diminuído, como relatórios de vídeo mostrou árvores submersas, e moradores a repórteres que a água cobre agora o que costumava ser uma praia de areia.
  

Jovem haitiano, entre os escombros de uma área comercial de Porto Príncipe

   
Impactos imediatos
Um repórter da agência de notícia Reuters disse rapidamente que havia dezenas de mortos e feridos sob os escombros e ruas estavam inacessíveis por causa da destruição, complementando: "Tudo tremia, gente gritava, casas desabavam… Está um caos total".
Prédios desmoronaram, entre eles o Palácio Nacional, a sede das Forças de Paz da Organização das Nações Unidas no Haiti e um hospital em Pétionville, no subúrbio de Porto Príncipe.
Os meios de comunicação foram seriamente afetados. De acordo com o porta-voz do Departamento de Estado dos Estados Unidos, Charles Luoma-Overstreet, os serviços de rádio deixaram de funcionar.
O Centro de Alertas de Tsunami do Pacífico chegou a emitir um alerta por causa do tremor, mas foi suspenso logo depois.
Há relatos de 21 brasileiros mortos na catástrofe, tendo sido confirmadas as mortes de 18 militares, integrantes da Missão de Paz da ONU no Haiti (Minustah), de Zilda Arns, médica sanitarista e pediatra, fundadora e coordenadora internacional da Pastoral da Criança, além do diplomata brasileiro Luiz Carlos da Costa, a segunda maior autoridade civil da ONU no Haiti.
O arcebispo da capital, Joseph Serge Miot, também morreu, vítima do sismo.
  

Reações
Um oficial do Departamento de Agricultura dos Estados Unidos disse: "Todos ficaram completamente abalados… Ouvi um tremendo barulho e gritos distantes."
O embaixador haitiano no Estados Unidos, Raymond Joseph, classificou o abalo como "uma catástrofe de enormes proporções".
A Associated Press classificou esse como "o maior terramoto já registado na região" em duzentos anos.
O secretário-geral da ONU, Ban Ki-moon, afirmou que a comunidade internacional e as Nações Unidas enfrentam uma enorme catástrofe humanitária, com o terramoto no Haiti, e pediu "ajuda urgente" para os haitianos.
O Brasil doou alimentos para ajudar o Haiti e milhões de dólares e Portugal enviou para o Haiti um avião C-130, da Força Aérea, com 32 elementos da Proteção Civil e que ajudaram nas operações de socorro.
A ONU, a Cruz Vermelha, os Médicos sem Fronteiras outras organizações e mais de 30 países ajudaram o Haiti.
  

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Um terramoto nos Açores, há quarenta e seis anos, matou 71 pessoas...

 

Igreja da Misericórdia

 

Sé Catedral

(imagens daqui)

O sismo da Terceira de 1980, também referido como terramoto de 1980 nos Açores, foi uma catástrofe natural, um sismo de grande intensidade, ocorrido a 1 de janeiro de 1980 no Grupo Central do arquipélago dos Açores.

  

 

O evento

O sismo ocorreu pelas 15.42 (hora local) do dia 1 de janeiro de 1980, e teve magnitude 7,2 na escala de Richter e intensidades máximas de IX na escala de Mercalli, na Terceira, e VIII, no Topo e em Santo Antão, em S. Jorge. A profundidade hipocentral estimada foi de 10 km e o epicentro situou-se no mar, cerca de 35 km a SSW de Angra do Heroísmo.

   

Os danos

Em consequência, na ilha Terceira causou a destruição de 80% dos edifícios na cidade de Angra do Heroísmo, assim como extensos danos na vila de São Sebastião e nas freguesias do Oeste e Noroeste da ilha (em especial nas Doze Ribeiras); na Graciosa, danos nas freguesias do Carapacho e na Luz; e na ilha de São Jorge, danos nas freguesias de Vila do Topo e de Santo Antão.

Foram registadas 71 vítimas fatais (51 na Terceira e 20 em São Jorge) e mais de 400 feridos.

No total, ficaram danificados mais de 15.500 edifícios, causando cerca de 15.000 desalojados.

O então presidente da República Portuguesa, António Ramalho Eanes anunciou três dias de luto nacional.     

     

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O terramoto de Messina foi há 117 anos...

Date	December 28, 1908 5:20 am
Magnitude	7.1 Mw
Epicenter	38.15°N 15.683°E
Areas affected	Sicily & Calabria, Italy
Tsunami	Yes
Casualties	100.000 to 200.000

  

The 1908 Messina earthquake (also known as the 1908 Messina and Reggio earthquake) and tsunami took about 123.000 lives on December 28, 1908, in Sicily and Calabria, southern Italy. The major cities of Messina and Reggio Calabria were almost completely destroyed.

   

   

Messina

   

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Um terramoto arrasou a cidade de Bam, no Irão, há vinte e dois anos

      

O Sismo de Bam de 2003 foi um sismo ocorrido em 26 de dezembro de 2003 na cidade de Bam (Irão) que destruiu a maior parte da cidade e causou dezenas de milhares de mortos.

A fortaleza da cidade, Património da Humanidade, foi declarada "em perigo" pela UNESCO.

Segundo as autoridades iranianas, o sismo causou entre 40.000 e 50.000 mortos, mas as estimativas mais rigorosas contam entre 25.000 e 30.000.

      

Fotografias do antes e depois da parte histórica de Bam

   

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A crise sísmica de New Madrid, nos Estados Unidos, começou há 214 anos

The Great Earthquake at New Madrid, a 19th-century woodcut from Devens' Our First Century (1877)

      
The 1811–1812 New Madrid earthquakes were an intense intraplate earthquake series beginning with an initial earthquake of moment magnitude (7,5 -7,9) on December 16, 1811 followed by a moment magnitude 7,4 aftershock on the same day. They remain the most powerful earthquakes to hit the contiguous United States east of the Rocky Mountains in recorded history. They, as well as the seismic zone of their occurrence, were named for the Mississippi River town of New Madrid, then part of the Louisiana Territory, now within Missouri.

There are estimates that the earthquakes were felt strongly over roughly 130,000 square kilometers, and moderately across nearly 3 million square kilometers. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake, by comparison, was felt moderately over roughly 16,000 km².

  

New Madrid fault and earthquake-prone region considered at high risk today

  

 The three earthquakes and their major aftershocks

• December 16, 1811, 08.15 UTC (2:15 a.m.); (M 7,5 -7,9) epicenter in northeast Arkansas. It caused only slight damage to manmade structures, mainly because of the sparse population in the epicentral area. The future location of Memphis, Tennessee, experienced level IX shaking on the Mercalli intensity scale. A seismic seiche propagated upriver, and Little Prairie (a village that was on the site of the former Fort San Fernando, near the site of present-day Caruthersville, Missouri) was heavily damaged by soil liquefaction.
• December 16, 1811 (aftershock), 14.15 UTC (8:15 a.m.); (M 7,4) epicenter in northeast Arkansas. This shock followed the first earthquake by five hours and was similar in intensity.
• January 23, 1812, 15.00 UTC (9:00 a.m.); (M 7,3 -7,6) epicenter in the Missouri Bootheel. The meizoseismal area was characterized by general ground warping, ejections, fissuring, severe landslides, and caving of stream banks. Johnson and Schweig attributed this earthquake to a rupture on the New Madrid North Fault. This may have placed strain on the Reelfoot Fault.
• February 7, 1812, 09.45 UTC (3:45 a.m.); (M 7,5 -8,0) epicenter near New Madrid, Missouri. New Madrid was destroyed. In St. Louis, Missouri, many houses were severely damaged, and their chimneys were toppled. This shock was definitively attributed to the Reelfoot Fault by Johnston and Schweig. Uplift along a segment of this reverse fault created temporary waterfalls on the Mississippi at Kentucky Bend, created waves that propagated upstream, and caused the formation of Reelfoot Lake by obstructing streams in what is now Lake County, Tennessee.

Susan Hough, a seismologist of the United States Geological Survey (USGS), has estimated the earthquakes' magnitudes as around magnitude 7.

There were many more aftershocks including one magnitude 7 aftershock to December 16, 1811 earthquake which occurred on December 17, 1811 at 0600 UTC (12:00 a.m.) and one magnitude 7 aftershock to February 7, 1812 earthquake which occurred on the same day at 0440 UTC (10:40 p.m.).

  
Eyewitness accounts

John Bradbury, a Fellow of the Linnean Society, was on the Mississippi on the night of December 15, 1811, and describes the tremors in great detail in his Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810 and 1811, published in 1817.

After supper, we went to sleep as usual: about ten o'clock, and in the night I was awakened by the most tremendous noise, accompanied by an agitation of the boat so violent, that it appeared in danger of upsetting ... I could distinctly see the river as if agitated by a storm; and although the noise was inconceivably loud and terrific, I could distinctly hear the crash of falling trees, and the screaming of the wild fowl on the river, but found that the boat was still safe at her moorings.
By the time we could get to our fire, which was on a large flag in the stern of the boat, the shock had ceased; but immediately the perpendicular banks, both above and below us, began to fall into the river in such vast masses, as nearly to sink our boat by the swell they occasioned ... At day-light we had counted twenty-seven shocks.

Eliza Bryan in New Madrid, Territory of Missouri, wrote the following eyewitness account in March 1812.

On the 16th of December, 1811, about two o'clock, a.m., we were visited by a violent shock of an earthquake, accompanied by a very awful noise resembling loud but distant thunder, but more hoarse and vibrating, which was followed in a few minutes by the complete saturation of the atmosphere, with sulphurious vapor, causing total darkness. The screams of the affrighted inhabitants running to and fro, not knowing where to go, or what to do—the cries of the fowls and beasts of every species—the cracking of trees falling, and the roaring of the Mississippi— the current of which was retrograde for a few minutes, owing as is supposed, to an irruption in its bed— formed a scene truly horrible.

John Reynolds (February 26, 1788 – May 8, 1865) who was the 4th governor of Illinois, among other political posts, mentions the earthquake in his biography My Own Times: Embracing Also the History of My Life (1855):

On the night of 16th November [sic], 1811, an earthquake occurred, that produced great consternation amongst the people. The centre of the violence was in New Madrid, Missouri, but the whole valley of the Mississippi was violently agitated. Our family all were sleeping in a log cabin, and my father leaped out of bed crying aloud "the Indians are on the house" ... We laughed at the mistake of my father, but soon found out it was worse than the Indians. Not one in the family knew at the time that it was an earthquake. The next morning another shock made us acquainted with it, so we decided it was an earthquake. The cattle came running home bellowing with fear, and all animals were terribly alarmed on the occasion. Our house cracked and quivered, so we were fearful it would fall to the ground. In the American Bottom many chimneys were thrown down, and the church bell in Cahokia sounded by the agitation of the building. It is said the shock of an earthquake was felt in Kaskaskia in 1804, but I did not perceive it. The shocks continued for years in Illinois, and some have experienced it this year, 1855.

The Shaker diarist Samuel Swan McClelland described the effects of the earthquake on the Shaker settlement at West Union (Busro), Indiana, where the earthquakes contributed to the temporary abandonment of the westernmost Shaker community.

     

Reelfoot Rift

    

Geologic setting

The underlying cause of the earthquakes is not well understood, but modern faulting seems to be related to an ancient geologic feature buried under the Mississippi River alluvial plain, known as the Reelfoot Rift. The New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ) is made up of reactivated faults that formed when what is now North America began to split or rift apart during the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era (about 750 million years ago). Faults were created along the rift and igneous rocks formed from magma that was being pushed towards the surface. The resulting rift system failed but has remained as an aulacogen (a scar or zone of weakness) deep underground.

In recent decades minor earthquakes have continued. The epicenters of over 4,000 earthquakes can be identified from seismic measurements taken since 1974. It can be seen that they originate from the seismic activity of the Reelfoot Rift. The zone which is colored in red on the map is called the New Madrid Seismic Zone. New forecasts estimate a 7 to 10 percent chance, in the next 50 years, of a repeat of a major earthquake like those that occurred in 1811–1812, which likely had magnitudes of between 7,6 and 8,0. There is a 25 to 40 percent chance, in a 50-year time span, of a magnitude 6,0 or greater earthquake.

In a report filed in November 2008, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency warned that a serious earthquake in the New Madrid Seismic Zone could result in "the highest economic losses due to a natural disaster in the United States," further predicting "widespread and catastrophic" damage across Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, and particularly Tennessee, where a 7,7 magnitude quake or greater would cause damage to tens of thousands of structures affecting water distribution, transportation systems, and other vital infrastructure.

    

4000 earthquake reports since 1974

      

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Há 73 anos ocorreu um dos mais fortes terramotos do século XX, na península russa de Kamchatka

  

The main earthquake struck at 16:58 GMT (04:58 local time) on November 4, 1952. Initially assigned a magnitude of 8.2, the quake was revised to 9.0 M_w in later years. A large tsunami resulted, causing destruction and loss of life around the Kamchatka peninsula and the Kuril Islands. Hawaii was also struck, with estimated damages of up to US$1 million and livestock losses, but no human casualties were recorded. Japan reported no casualties or damage. The tsunami reached as far as Alaska, Chile, and New Zealand.

The hypocentre was located at 52.75°N 159.5°E, at a depth of 30 km. The length of the subduction zone fracture was 600 km. Aftershocks were recorded in an area of approximately 247,000 km², at depths of between 40 and 60 km. A recent analysis of the tsunami runup distribution based on historical and geological records give some indication as to the slip distribution of the rupture.

 

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View of the Severo-Kurilsk port. In 1952 a whole settlement was located there. The modern town was rebuilt in another place

1952 Severo-Kurilsk Tsunami was a major tsunami that hit Severo-Kurilsk, Kuril Islands, Sakhalin Oblast, Russian SFSR, USSR, which occurred on 5 November 1952 at about 5 a.m. It led to the destruction of many settlements in Sakhalin Oblast and Kamchatka Oblast, while the main impact struck the town of Severo-Kurilsk. The tsunami was generated by a major earthquake in the Pacific Ocean, 130 km from the shore of Kamchatka, with an estimated magnitude of 9.0. There were three waves about 15-18 m high. After the earthquake the majority of the Severo-Kurilsk citizens fled to the surrounding hills, where they escaped the first wave. However, most of them returned to the town and were killed by the second wave. The third wave was minor. According to the authorities, out of a population of 6,000 people, 2,336 died.
The remaining survivors were evacuated to continental Russia. The settlement was then rebuilt in another location.

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NOTA: embora provocando poucos mortos, dada a sua magnitude, este sismo é considerado atualmente o 5º com mais elevada magnitude não inferida de sempre e o 3º mais forte do século XX, segundo a Wikipédia:

Rank	Date	Location	Event	Magnitude
1	May 22, 1960	Valdivia, Chile	1960 Valdivia earthquake	9.4–9.6
2	March 27, 1964	Prince William Sound, Alaska, United States	1964 Alaska earthquake	9.2–9.3
3	December 26, 2004	Sumatra, Indonesia	2004 Indian Ocean earthquake	9.2–9.3
4	March 11, 2011	Pacific Ocean, Tōhoku region, Japan	2011 Tōhoku earthquake	9.0–9.1
5	November 4, 1952	Kamchatka, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union	1952 Severo-Kurilsk earthquake	9.0

Um terramoto arrasou Lisboa há 270 anos...

Localização provável do epicentro do terramoto de 1755
Epicentro	Região do Banco de Gorringe 36° N 11° O
Magnitude	8,5 - 9,5 (est.) MW
Data	1 de novembro de 1755
Vítimas	As estimativas variam entre os 10.000 e os 90.000 mortos em Lisboa

 

 

O Sismo de 1755, também conhecido por Terramoto de 1755, ocorreu no dia 1 de novembro de 1755, resultando na destruição quase completa da cidade de Lisboa, especialmente na zona da Baixa, e atingindo ainda grande parte do litoral do Algarve e Setúbal. O sismo foi seguido de um tsunami, que se crê tenha atingido a altura de 20 metros, e de múltiplos incêndios, tendo feito certamente mais de 10 mil mortos (há quem aponte muitos mais). Foi um dos sismos mais mortíferos da história, marcando o que alguns historiadores chamam a pré-história da Europa Moderna. Os sismólogos estimam que o sismo de 1755 atingiu magnitudes entre 8,7 a 9,0 na escala de Richter.

O terramoto de Lisboa teve um enorme impacto político e socioeconómico na sociedade portuguesa do século XVIII, dando origem aos primeiros estudos científicos do efeito de um sismo numa área alargada, marcando assim o nascimento da sismologia moderna. O acontecimento foi largamente discutido pelos filósofos iluministas, como Voltaire, inspirando desenvolvimentos significativos no domínio da teodiceia e da filosofia do sublime.

Localização potencial do epicentro do terramoto de 1755 e tempos de chegada do tsunami, em horas após o sismo

 

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O sismo de Loma Prieta foi há trinta e seis anos...

  

O Sismo de Loma Prieta de 1989 ocorreu na região da área da baía de São Francisco, na Califórnia, Estados Unidos, no dia 17 de outubro de 1989, às 17.04, hora local (00.04 UTC no dia 18), e teve magnitude de 6,9 na escala de magnitude de momento (Mw). O epicentro foi a 16 km a nordeste de Santa Cruz, numa secção na falha de Santo André na montanha de Loma Prieta (que deu o nome ao sismo), localizada ao longo das Montanhas de Santa Cruz. Teve duração de 8 a 15 segundos e o hipocentro foi a uma profundidade de 19 km. Causou a morte de 63 pessoas e outras 3.757 ficaram feridas. O prejuízo total foi de cerca de 5,6 a 6 mil milhões de dólares.

O terramoto ficou mais conhecido por ser o primeiro sismo da era moderna com epicentro nos Estados Unidos a ser transmitido ao vivo, em rede nacional, por uma emissora de televisão no país, a American Broadcasting Company (ABC), devido ao jogo n.º 3 da World Series da Major League Baseball de 1989 que estava para ser iniciado no Candlestick Park, e por coincidência, tinha como finalistas as duas equipas da área da baía de São Francisco (região atingida pelo tremor de terra), os San Francisco Giants e os Oakland Athletics. 

 

  

 

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Um terramoto, com abalo premonitório e muitas réplicas, matou onze pessoas em Itália há 28 anos

Afresco destruído, de Cimbabue, na Basílica de São Francisco

 

1997 Umbria and Marche earthquake

Date	11:40:26, September 26, 1997 (UTC)
Magnitude	6.1 Mw
Depth	10 km (6.2 mi)
Epicenter	43.084°N 12.812°E
Countries or regions	Italy (Umbria, Marche)
Casualties	11 dead 100 injured

 

The 1997 Umbria and Marche earthquake consisted of two earthquakes that occurred in the regions of Umbria and Marche, central Italy, in quick succession on the morning of September 26, 1997.

The first shock occurred at 2:33 am CEST (0:33 UTC), rated 5.5 on the Richter scale, and the second – the main shock – occurred at 11:40 am CEST (9:40 UTC), rated 6.1 on the Richter scale. Their epicentre was in Annifo.

There were several thousands of foreshocks and aftershocks from May 1997 to April 1998, more than thirty of which had a Richter magnitude more than 3.5. 11 people are known to have died following the shocks of September 26, 1997.
   

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O grande sismo de Kantō foi há 102 anos...

 

Marunouchi (commercial district of Tokyo) in flames

    

The Great Kantō earthquake struck the Kantō plain on the Japanese main island of Honshū at 11:58:44 am JST (2:58:44 UTC) on Saturday, September 1, 1923. Varied accounts indicate the duration of the earthquake was between four and 10 minutes. This was the deadliest earthquake in Japanese history, and at the time was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in the region. The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake later surpassed that record, at magnitude 9.0.

The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.9 on the Moment magnitude scale (M_w), with its focus deep beneath Izu Ōshima Island in the Sagami Bay. The cause was rupture of part of the convergent boundary where the Philippine Sea Plate is subducting beneath the Okhotsk Plate along the line of the Sagami Trough.

This earthquake devastated Tokyo, the port city of Yokohama, and the surrounding prefectures of Chiba, Kanagawa, and Shizuoka, and caused widespread damage throughout the Kantō region. The power was so great in Kamakura, over 60 km (37 mi) from the epicenter, it moved the Great Buddha statue, which weighs about 93 short tons (84,000 kg), almost two feet.

Estimated casualties totaled about 142,800 deaths, including about 40,000 who went missing and were presumed dead. The damage from this natural disaster was the greatest sustained by prewar Japan. In 1960, the government of Japan declared September 1, the anniversary of the quake, as an annual "Disaster Prevention Day".

According to the Japanese construction company Kajima Kobori Research's conclusive report of September 2004, 105,385 deaths were confirmed in the 1923 quake.

  

Damage and deaths

Because the earthquake struck at lunchtime when many people were cooking meals over fire, many people died as a result of the many large fires that broke out. Some fires developed into firestorms that swept across cities. Many people died when their feet became stuck in melting tarmac. The single greatest loss of life was caused by a firestorm-induced fire whirl that engulfed open space at the Rikugun Honjo Hifukusho (formerly the Army Clothing Depot) in downtown Tokyo, where about 38,000 people were incinerated after taking shelter there following the earthquake. The earthquake broke water mains all over the city, and putting out the fires took nearly two full days until late in the morning of September 3. An estimated 140,000 people were killed and 447,000 houses were destroyed by the fire alone.
A strong typhoon struck Tokyo Bay at about the same time as the earthquake. Some scientists, including C.F. Brooks of the United States Weather Bureau, suggested the opposing energy exerted by a sudden decrease of atmospheric pressure coupled with a sudden increase of sea pressure by a storm surge on an already-stressed earthquake fault, known as the Sagami Trough, may have triggered the earthquake. Winds from the typhoon caused fires off the coast of Noto Peninsula in Ishikawa Prefecture to spread rapidly.
The Emperor and Empress were staying at Nikko when the earthquake struck Tokyo, and were never in any danger.

Many homes were buried or swept away by landslides in the mountainous and hilly coastal areas in western Kanagawa Prefecture, killing about 800 people. A collapsing mountainside in the village of Nebukawa, west of Odawara, pushed the entire village and a passenger train carrying over 100 passengers, along with the railway station, into the sea.
A tsunami with waves up to 10 m (33 ft) high struck the coast of Sagami Bay, Boso Peninsula, Izu Islands, and the east coast of Izu Peninsula within minutes. The tsunami killed many, including about 100 people along Yui-ga-hama Beach in Kamakura and an estimated 50 people on the Enoshima causeway. Over 570,000 homes were destroyed, leaving an estimated 1.9 million homeless. Evacuees were transported by ship from Kanto to as far as Kobe in Kansai. The damage is estimated to have exceeded USD$1 billion (or about $13,475 billion today). There were 57 aftershocks.
Altogether, the earthquake and typhoon killed an estimated 99,300 people, and another 43,500 went missing.

   

Postquake massacre of ethnic minorities and political opponents

The Home Ministry declared martial law, and ordered all sectional police chiefs to make maintenance of order and security a top priority. A rumor spread was that Koreans were taking advantage of the disaster, committing arson and robbery, and were in possession of bombs. Anti-Korean sentiment was heightened by fear of the Korean independence movement, partisans of which were responsible for assassinations of top Japanese officials and other terrorist activity. In the confusion after the quake, mass murder of Koreans by mobs occurred in urban Tokyo and Yokohama, fueled by rumors of rebellion and sabotage. The government reported 2613 Koreans were killed by mobs in Tokyo and Yokohama in the first week of September. Independent reports said the number killed was far higher. Some newspapers reported the rumors as fact, including the allegation that Koreans were poisoning wells. The numerous fires and cloudy well water, a little-known effect of a large quake, all seemed to confirm the rumors of the panic-stricken survivors who were living amidst the rubble. Vigilante groups set up roadblocks in cities, and tested residents with a shibboleth for supposedly Korean-accented Japanese: deporting, beating, or killing those who failed. Army and police personnel colluded in the vigilante killings in some areas. Of the 3,000 Koreans taken into custody at the Army Cavalry Regiment base in Narashino, Chiba Prefecture, 10% were killed at the base, or after being released into nearby villages. Moreover, anyone mistakenly identified as Korean, such as Chinese, Okinawans, and Japanese speakers of some regional dialects, suffered the same fate. About 700 Chinese, mostly from Wenzhou, were killed. A monument commemorating this was built in 1993 in Wenzhou.

In response, the government called upon the Japanese Army and the police to detain Koreans to defuse the situation; 23.715 Koreans were detained across Japan, 12.000 in Tokyo alone. The chief of police of Tsurumi (or Kawasaki by some accounts) is reported to have publicly drunk the well water to disprove the rumor that Koreans had been poisoning wells. In some towns, even police stations into which Korean people had escaped were attacked by mobs, whereas in other neighbourhoods, residents took steps to protect them. The Army distributed flyers denying the rumor and warning civilians against attacking Koreans, but in many cases vigilante activity only ceased as a result of Army operations against it. As Allen notes, the Japanese colonial occupation of Korea provided the backdrop to this extreme example of the explosion of racial prejudice into violence, based on a history of antagonism. To be a Korean in 1923 Japan was to be not only despised, but also threatened and possibly killed.
Amidst the mob violence against Koreans in the Kantō Region, regional police and the Imperial Army used the pretext of civil unrest to liquidate political dissidents. Socialists such as Hirasawa Keishichi, anarchists such as Sakae Osugi and Noe Ito, and the Chinese communal leader, Ou Kiten, were abducted and killed by local police and Imperial Army, who claimed the radicals intended to use the crisis as an opportunity to overthrow the Japanese government.
The importance of obtaining and providing accurate information following natural disasters has been emphasized in Japan ever since. Earthquake preparation literature in modern Japan almost always directs citizens to carry a portable radio and use it to listen to reliable information, and not to be misled by rumors in the event of a large earthquake.
   
Aftermath
Following the devastation of the earthquake, some in the government considered the possibility of moving the capital elsewhere. Proposed sites for the new capital were even discussed.
Japanese commentators interpreted the disaster as an act of divine (Kami) punishment to admonish the Japanese people for their self-centered, immoral, and extravagant lifestyles. In the long run, the response to the disaster was a strong sense that Japan had been given an unparalleled opportunity to rebuild the city, and to rebuild Japanese values. In reconstructing the city, the nation, and the Japanese people, the earthquake fostered a culture of catastrophe and reconstruction that amplified discourses of moral degeneracy and national renovation in interwar Japan.
After the earthquake, Gotō Shimpei organized a reconstruction plan of Tokyo with modern networks of roads, trains, and public services. Parks were placed all over Tokyo as refuge spots, and public buildings were constructed with stricter standards than private buildings to accommodate refugees. However, the outbreak of World War II and subsequent destruction severely limited resources.
Frank Lloyd Wright received credit for designing the Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, to withstand the quake, although in fact the building was damaged by the shock. The destruction of the US embassy caused Ambassador Cyrus Woods to relocate the embassy to the hotel. Wright's structure withstood the anticipated earthquake stresses, and the hotel remained in use until 1968.
The unfinished battlecruiser Amagi was in drydock being converted into an aircraft carrier in Yokosuka in compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. However, the earthquake damaged the Amagi beyond repair, leading it to be scrapped, and the unfinished fast battleship Kaga was converted into an aircraft carrier in its place.
In contrast to London, where typhoid fever had been steadily declining since the 1870s, the rate in Tokyo remained high, more so in the upper-class residential northern and western districts than in the densely populated working-class eastern district. An explanation is the decline of waste disposal, which became particularly serious in the northern and western districts when traditional methods of waste disposal collapsed due to urbanization. The 1923 earthquake led to record-high morbidity due to unsanitary conditions following the earthquake, and it prompted the establishment of antityphoid measures and the building of urban infrastructure.

   

Memory

Beginning in 1960, every September 1 is designated as Disaster Prevention Day to commemorate the earthquake and remind people of the importance of preparation, as September and October are the middle of the typhoon season. Schools and public and private organizations host disaster drills. Tokyo is located near a fault zone beneath the Izu peninsula which, on average, causes a major earthquake about once every 70 years, and is also located near the Sagami Trough, a large subduction zone that threatens to create a massive earthquake that, in the darkest case, would kill millions in the Kanto Region. Every year on this date, schools across Japan take a moment of silence at the precise time the earthquake hit in memory of the lives lost.

Some discreet memorials are located in Yokoamicho Park in Sumida Ward, at the site of the open space in which an estimated 38,000 people were killed by a single firestorm. The park houses a Buddhist-style memorial hall/museum, a memorial bell donated by Taiwanese Buddhists, a memorial to the victims of World War II Tokyo air raids, and a memorial to the Korean victims of the vigilante killings.

          

   

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