A Viking 2 chegou a Marte há 48 anos

     

The Viking 2 mission was part of the American Viking program to Mars, and consisted of an orbiter and a lander essentially identical to that of the Viking 1 mission. The Viking 2 lander operated on the surface for 1316 days, or 1281 sols, and was turned off on April 11, 1980 when its batteries failed. The orbiter worked until July 25, 1978, returning almost 16,000 images in 706 orbits around Mars.

    

Mission profile

The craft was launched on September 9, 1975. Following launch using a Titan/Centaur launch vehicle and a 333-day cruise to Mars, the Viking 2 Orbiter began returning global images of Mars prior to orbit insertion. The orbiter was inserted into a 1500 x 33,000 km, 24.6 h Mars orbit on August 7, 1976 and trimmed to a 27.3 h site certification orbit with a periapsis of 1499 km and an inclination of 55.2 degrees on 9 August. Imaging of candidate sites was begun and the landing site was selected based on these pictures and the images returned by the Viking 1 Orbiter.

The lander separated from the orbiter on September 3, 1976 at 22:37:50 UT and landed at Utopia Planitia. Normal operations called for the structure connecting the orbiter and lander (the bioshield) to be ejected after separation, but because of problems with the separation the bioshield was left attached to the orbiter. The orbit inclination was raised to 75 degrees on 30 September 1976.

   

Orbiter

The orbiter primary mission ended at the beginning of solar conjunction on October 5, 1976. The extended mission commenced on 14 December 1976 after solar conjunction. On 20 December 1976 the periapsis was lowered to 778 km and the inclination raised to 80 degrees.

Operations included close approaches to Deimos in October 1977 and the periapsis was lowered to 300 km and the period changed to 24 hours on 23 October 1977. The orbiter developed a leak in its propulsion system that vented its attitude control gas. It was placed in a 302 × 33,176 km orbit and turned off on 25 July 1978 after returning almost 16,000 images in about 700–706 orbits around Mars.

   

Lander

The lander and its aeroshell separated from the orbiter on 3 September 19:39:59 UT. At the time of separation, the lander was orbiting at about 4 km/s. After separation, rockets fired to begin lander deorbit. After a few hours, at about 300 km attitude, the lander was reoriented for entry. The aeroshell with its ablative heat shield slowed the craft as it plunged through the atmosphere.

The Viking 2 Lander touched down about 200 km west of the crater Mie in Utopia Planitia.

Approximately 22 kg (49 lb) of propellants were left at landing. Due to radar misidentification of a rock or highly reflective surface, the thrusters fired an extra time 0.4 second before landing, cracking the surface and raising dust. The lander settled down with one leg on a rock, tilted at 8.2 degrees. The cameras began taking images immediately after landing.

The Viking 2 lander was powered by radioisotope generators and operated on the surface until April 11, 1980, when its batteries failed.

   

First color image (Viking Lander 2 Camera 2 sol 2, September 5, 1976) 14:36

   

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A sonda Viking 2 chegou a Marte há 47 anos

     

The Viking 2 mission was part of the American Viking program to Mars, and consisted of an orbiter and a lander essentially identical to that of the Viking 1 mission. The Viking 2 lander operated on the surface for 1316 days, or 1281 sols, and was turned off on April 11, 1980 when its batteries failed. The orbiter worked until July 25, 1978, returning almost 16,000 images in 706 orbits around Mars.

    

Mission profile

The craft was launched on September 9, 1975. Following launch using a Titan/Centaur launch vehicle and a 333-day cruise to Mars, the Viking 2 Orbiter began returning global images of Mars prior to orbit insertion. The orbiter was inserted into a 1500 x 33,000 km, 24.6 h Mars orbit on August 7, 1976 and trimmed to a 27.3 h site certification orbit with a periapsis of 1499 km and an inclination of 55.2 degrees on 9 August. Imaging of candidate sites was begun and the landing site was selected based on these pictures and the images returned by the Viking 1 Orbiter.

The lander separated from the orbiter on September 3, 1976 at 22:37:50 UT and landed at Utopia Planitia. Normal operations called for the structure connecting the orbiter and lander (the bioshield) to be ejected after separation, but because of problems with the separation the bioshield was left attached to the orbiter. The orbit inclination was raised to 75 degrees on 30 September 1976.

   

Orbiter

The orbiter primary mission ended at the beginning of solar conjunction on October 5, 1976. The extended mission commenced on 14 December 1976 after solar conjunction. On 20 December 1976 the periapsis was lowered to 778 km and the inclination raised to 80 degrees.

Operations included close approaches to Deimos in October 1977 and the periapsis was lowered to 300 km and the period changed to 24 hours on 23 October 1977. The orbiter developed a leak in its propulsion system that vented its attitude control gas. It was placed in a 302 × 33,176 km orbit and turned off on 25 July 1978 after returning almost 16,000 images in about 700–706 orbits around Mars.

   

Lander

The lander and its aeroshell separated from the orbiter on 3 September 19:39:59 UT. At the time of separation, the lander was orbiting at about 4 km/s. After separation, rockets fired to begin lander deorbit. After a few hours, at about 300 km attitude, the lander was reoriented for entry. The aeroshell with its ablative heat shield slowed the craft as it plunged through the atmosphere.

The Viking 2 Lander touched down about 200 km west of the crater Mie in Utopia Planitia.

Approximately 22 kg (49 lb) of propellants were left at landing. Due to radar misidentification of a rock or highly reflective surface, the thrusters fired an extra time 0.4 second before landing, cracking the surface and raising dust. The lander settled down with one leg on a rock, tilted at 8.2 degrees. The cameras began taking images immediately after landing.

The Viking 2 lander was powered by radioisotope generators and operated on the surface until April 11, 1980, when its batteries failed.

   

First color image (Viking Lander 2 Camera 2 sol 2, September 5, 1976) 14:36

   

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A Viking 2 chegou a Marte há 46 anos

     

The Viking 2 mission was part of the American Viking program to Mars, and consisted of an orbiter and a lander essentially identical to that of the Viking 1 mission. The Viking 2 lander operated on the surface for 1316 days, or 1281 sols, and was turned off on April 11, 1980 when its batteries failed. The orbiter worked until July 25, 1978, returning almost 16,000 images in 706 orbits around Mars.

    

Mission profile

The craft was launched on September 9, 1975. Following launch using a Titan/Centaur launch vehicle and a 333-day cruise to Mars, the Viking 2 Orbiter began returning global images of Mars prior to orbit insertion. The orbiter was inserted into a 1500 x 33,000 km, 24.6 h Mars orbit on August 7, 1976 and trimmed to a 27.3 h site certification orbit with a periapsis of 1499 km and an inclination of 55.2 degrees on 9 August. Imaging of candidate sites was begun and the landing site was selected based on these pictures and the images returned by the Viking 1 Orbiter.

The lander separated from the orbiter on September 3, 1976 at 22:37:50 UT and landed at Utopia Planitia. Normal operations called for the structure connecting the orbiter and lander (the bioshield) to be ejected after separation, but because of problems with the separation the bioshield was left attached to the orbiter. The orbit inclination was raised to 75 degrees on 30 September 1976.

   

Orbiter

The orbiter primary mission ended at the beginning of solar conjunction on October 5, 1976. The extended mission commenced on 14 December 1976 after solar conjunction. On 20 December 1976 the periapsis was lowered to 778 km and the inclination raised to 80 degrees.

Operations included close approaches to Deimos in October 1977 and the periapsis was lowered to 300 km and the period changed to 24 hours on 23 October 1977. The orbiter developed a leak in its propulsion system that vented its attitude control gas. It was placed in a 302 × 33,176 km orbit and turned off on 25 July 1978 after returning almost 16,000 images in about 700–706 orbits around Mars.

   

Lander

The lander and its aeroshell separated from the orbiter on 3 September 19:39:59 UT. At the time of separation, the lander was orbiting at about 4 km/s. After separation, rockets fired to begin lander deorbit. After a few hours, at about 300 km attitude, the lander was reoriented for entry. The aeroshell with its ablative heat shield slowed the craft as it plunged through the atmosphere.

The Viking 2 Lander touched down about 200 km west of the crater Mie in Utopia Planitia.

Approximately 22 kg (49 lb) of propellants were left at landing. Due to radar misidentification of a rock or highly reflective surface, the thrusters fired an extra time 0.4 second before landing, cracking the surface and raising dust. The lander settled down with one leg on a rock, tilted at 8.2 degrees. The cameras began taking images immediately after landing.

The Viking 2 lander was powered by radioisotope generators and operated on the surface until April 11, 1980, when its batteries failed.

   

First color image (Viking Lander 2 Camera 2 sol 2, September 5, 1976) 14:36

   

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A sonda Viking 2 chegou a Marte há 45 anos

   

The Viking 2 mission was part of the American Viking program to Mars, and consisted of an orbiter and a lander essentially identical to that of the Viking 1 mission. The Viking 2 lander operated on the surface for 1316 days, or 1281 sols, and was turned off on April 11, 1980 when its batteries failed. The orbiter worked until July 25, 1978, returning almost 16,000 images in 706 orbits around Mars.

    

Mission profile

The craft was launched on September 9, 1975. Following launch using a Titan/Centaur launch vehicle and a 333-day cruise to Mars, the Viking 2 Orbiter began returning global images of Mars prior to orbit insertion. The orbiter was inserted into a 1500 x 33,000 km, 24.6 h Mars orbit on August 7, 1976 and trimmed to a 27.3 h site certification orbit with a periapsis of 1499 km and an inclination of 55.2 degrees on 9 August. Imaging of candidate sites was begun and the landing site was selected based on these pictures and the images returned by the Viking 1 Orbiter.

The lander separated from the orbiter on September 3, 1976 at 22:37:50 UT and landed at Utopia Planitia. Normal operations called for the structure connecting the orbiter and lander (the bioshield) to be ejected after separation, but because of problems with the separation the bioshield was left attached to the orbiter. The orbit inclination was raised to 75 degrees on 30 September 1976.

   

Orbiter

The orbiter primary mission ended at the beginning of solar conjunction on October 5, 1976. The extended mission commenced on 14 December 1976 after solar conjunction. On 20 December 1976 the periapsis was lowered to 778 km and the inclination raised to 80 degrees.

Operations included close approaches to Deimos in October 1977 and the periapsis was lowered to 300 km and the period changed to 24 hours on 23 October 1977. The orbiter developed a leak in its propulsion system that vented its attitude control gas. It was placed in a 302 × 33,176 km orbit and turned off on 25 July 1978 after returning almost 16,000 images in about 700–706 orbits around Mars.

   

Lander

The lander and its aeroshell separated from the orbiter on 3 September 19:39:59 UT. At the time of separation, the lander was orbiting at about 4 km/s. After separation, rockets fired to begin lander deorbit. After a few hours, at about 300 km attitude, the lander was reoriented for entry. The aeroshell with its ablative heat shield slowed the craft as it plunged through the atmosphere.

The Viking 2 Lander touched down about 200 km west of the crater Mie in Utopia Planitia.

Approximately 22 kg (49 lb) of propellants were left at landing. Due to radar misidentification of a rock or highly reflective surface, the thrusters fired an extra time 0.4 second before landing, cracking the surface and raising dust. The lander settled down with one leg on a rock, tilted at 8.2 degrees. The cameras began taking images immediately after landing.

The Viking 2 lander was powered by radioisotope generators and operated on the surface until April 11, 1980, when its batteries failed.

   

First color image (Viking Lander 2 Camera 2 sol 2, September 5, 1976) 14:36

   

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A Viking 2 chegou a Marte há 40 anos

The Viking 2 mission was part of the American Viking program to Mars, and consisted of an orbiter and a lander essentially identical to that of the Viking 1 mission. The Viking 2 lander operated on the surface for 1316 days, or 1281 sols, and was turned off on April 11, 1980 when its batteries failed. The orbiter worked until July 25, 1978, returning almost 16,000 images in 706 orbits around Mars.

  

Mission profile

The craft was launched on September 9, 1975. Following launch using a Titan/Centaur launch vehicle and a 333-day cruise to Mars, the Viking 2 Orbiter began returning global images of Mars prior to orbit insertion. The orbiter was inserted into a 1500 x 33,000 km, 24.6 h Mars orbit on August 7, 1976 and trimmed to a 27.3 h site certification orbit with a periapsis of 1499 km and an inclination of 55.2 degrees on 9 August. Imaging of candidate sites was begun and the landing site was selected based on these pictures and the images returned by the Viking 1 Orbiter.

The lander separated from the orbiter on September 3, 1976 at 22:37:50 UT and landed at Utopia Planitia. Normal operations called for the structure connecting the orbiter and lander (the bioshield) to be ejected after separation, but because of problems with the separation the bioshield was left attached to the orbiter. The orbit inclination was raised to 75 degrees on 30 September 1976.

Orbiter

The orbiter primary mission ended at the beginning of solar conjunction on October 5, 1976. The extended mission commenced on 14 December 1976 after solar conjunction. On 20 December 1976 the periapsis was lowered to 778 km and the inclination raised to 80 degrees.

Operations included close approaches to Deimos in October 1977 and the periapsis was lowered to 300 km and the period changed to 24 hours on 23 October 1977. The orbiter developed a leak in its propulsion system that vented its attitude control gas. It was placed in a 302 × 33,176 km orbit and turned off on 25 July 1978 after returning almost 16,000 images in about 700–706 orbits around Mars.

  

Lander

The lander and its aeroshell separated from the orbiter on 3 September 19:39:59 UT. At the time of separation, the lander was orbiting at about 4 km/s. After separation, rockets fired to begin lander deorbit. After a few hours, at about 300 km attitude, the lander was reoriented for entry. The aeroshell with its ablative heat shield slowed the craft as it plunged through the atmosphere.

The Viking 2 Lander touched down about 200 km west of the crater Mie in Utopia Planitia.

Approximately 22 kg (49 lb) of propellants were left at landing. Due to radar misidentification of a rock or highly reflective surface, the thrusters fired an extra time 0.4 second before landing, cracking the surface and raising dust. The lander settled down with one leg on a rock, tilted at 8.2 degrees. The cameras began taking images immediately after landing.

The Viking 2 lander was powered by radioisotope generators and operated on the surface until April 11, 1980, when its batteries failed.

First color image (Viking Lander 2 Camera 2 sol 2, September 5, 1976) 14:36

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Sagan morreu há 15 anos

Sagan e o modelo da sonda Viking enviada a Marte

Carl Edward Sagan (Nova Iorque, 9 de novembro de 1934 - Seattle, 20 de dezembro de 1996) foi um cientista e astrónomo dos Estados Unidos.

Em 1960, obteve o título de doutor pela Universidade de Chicago. Dedicou-se à pesquisa e à divulgação da astronomia, como também ao estudo da chamada exobiologia. Morreu aos 62 anos, de cancro, no Centro de Pesquisas do Câncer Fred Hutchinson, depois de uma batalha de dois anos com uma rara e grave doença na medula óssea (mielodisplasia).

Com sua formação multidisciplinar, Sagan foi o autor de obras como Cosmos (que foi transformada em uma premiada série de televisão), Os Dragões do Éden (pelo qual recebeu o prémio Pulitzer de Literatura), O Romance da Ciência, Pálido Ponto Azul e Um Mundo Infestado de Demónios.

Escreveu ainda o romance de ficção científica Contato, que foi levado para as telas de cinema, posteriormente a sua morte. Sua última obra, Biliões e Biliões, foi publicada postumamente por sua esposa e colaboradora Ann Druyan e consiste, fundamentalmente, numa compilação de artigos inéditos escritos por Sagan, tendo um capítulo sido escrito por ele enquanto se encontrava no hospital. Recentemente foi publicado no Brasil mais um livro sobre Sagan, Variedades da experiência científica: Uma visão pessoal da busca por Deus, que é uma coletânea de suas palestras sobre teologia natural.

Isaac Asimov descreveu Sagan como uma das duas pessoas que ele encontrou cujo intelecto ultrapassava o dele próprio. O outro, disse ele, foi o cientista de computadores e perito em inteligência artificial Marvin Minsky.

Foi professor de astronomia e ciências espaciais na Cornell University e professor visitante no Laboratório de Propulsão a Jato do Instituto de Tecnologia da Califórnia. Criou a Sociedade Planetária e promoveu o SETI.

Carl Sagan teve um papel significativo no programa espacial americano desde o seu início. Foi consultor e conselheiro da NASA desde os anos 1950, trabalhou com os astronautas do Projeto Apollo antes de suas idas à Lua, e chefiou os projetos da Mariner e Viking, pioneiras na exploração do sistema solar que permitiram obter importantes informações sobre Vénus e Marte. Participou também das missões Voyager e da sonda Galileu. Foi decisivo na explicação do efeito estufa em Vénus e o descobrimento das altas temperaturas do planeta, na explicação das mudanças sazonais da atmosfera de Marte e na descoberta das moléculas orgânicas em Titã, satélite de Saturno. Ele também foi um dos maiores divulgadores da ciência de todos os tempos ao apresentar a série Cosmos em 1980.

Recebeu diversos prémios e homenagens de diversos centros de pesquisas e entidades ligadas à astronomia, inclusive o maior prémio científico das Américas, o prémio da Academia Nacional de Ciências (no caso, o Public Welfare Medal). Recebeu também 22 títulos honoris causa de universidades americanas, medalhas da NASA por Excepcionais Feitos Científicos, por Feitos no Programa Apollo e duas vezes a Distinção por Serviços Públicos, o Prémio de Astronáutica John F. Kennedy da Sociedade Astronáutica Norte-Americana, o Prémio de Beneficência Pública por “distintas contribuições para o bem estar da humanidade”, a Medalha Tsiolkovsky da Federação Cosmonáutica Soviética, o Prémio Masursky da Sociedade Astronómica Norte-Americana, o prémio Pulitzer de literatura, em 1978, por seu livro Os Dragões do Éden e o prémio Emmy, por sua série Cosmos. Em sua homenagem, o asteróide 2709 Sagan tem o seu nome.

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Carl Sagan nasceu há 77 anos

Carl Edward Sagan (Nova Iorque, 9 de novembro de 1934 - Seattle, 20 de dezembro de 1996) foi um cientista e astrónomo dos Estados Unidos.

Em 1960, obteve o título de doutor pela Universidade de Chicago. Dedicou-se à pesquisa e à divulgação da astronomia, como também ao estudo da chamada exobiologia. Morreu aos 62 anos, de cancro, no Centro de Pesquisas do Câncer Fred Hutchinson, depois de uma batalha de dois anos com uma rara e grave doença na medula óssea (mielodisplasia).

Com sua formação multidisciplinar, Sagan foi o autor de obras como Cosmos (que foi transformada em uma premiada série de televisão), Os Dragões do Éden (pelo qual recebeu o prémio Pulitzer de Literatura), O Romance da Ciência, Pálido Ponto Azul e Um Mundo Infestado de Demónios.

Escreveu ainda o romance de ficção científica Contato, que foi levado para as telas de cinema, posteriormente a sua morte. Sua última obra, Biliões e Biliões, foi publicada postumamente por sua esposa e colaboradora Ann Druyan e consiste, fundamentalmente, numa compilação de artigos inéditos escritos por Sagan, tendo um capítulo sido escrito por ele enquanto se encontrava no hospital. Recentemente foi publicado no Brasil mais um livro sobre Sagan, Variedades da experiência científica: Uma visão pessoal da busca por Deus, que é uma coletânea de suas palestras sobre teologia natural.

Isaac Asimov descreveu Sagan como uma das duas pessoas que ele encontrou cujo intelecto ultrapassava o dele próprio. O outro, disse ele, foi o cientista de computadores e perito em inteligência artificial Marvin Minsky.

Foi professor de astronomia e ciências espaciais na Cornell University e professor visitante no Laboratório de Propulsão a Jato do Instituto de Tecnologia da Califórnia. Criou a Sociedade Planetária e promoveu o SETI.

Carl Sagan teve um papel significativo no programa espacial americano desde o seu início. Foi consultor e conselheiro da NASA desde os anos 1950, trabalhou com os astronautas do Projeto Apollo antes de suas idas à Lua, e chefiou os projetos da Mariner e Viking, pioneiras na exploração do sistema solar que permitiram obter importantes informações sobre Vénus e Marte. Participou também das missões Voyager e da sonda Galileu. Foi decisivo na explicação do efeito estufa em Vénus e o descobrimento das altas temperaturas do planeta, na explicação das mudanças sazonais da atmosfera de Marte e na descoberta das moléculas orgânicas em Titã, satélite de Saturno. Ele também foi um dos maiores divulgadores da ciência de todos os tempos ao apresentar a série Cosmos em 1980.

Recebeu diversos prémios e homenagens de diversos centros de pesquisas e entidades ligadas à astronomia, inclusive o maior prémio científico das Américas, o prémio da Academia Nacional de Ciências (no caso, o Public Welfare Medal). Recebeu também 22 títulos honoris causa de universidades americanas, medalhas da NASA por Excepcionais Feitos Científicos, por Feitos no Programa Apollo e duas vezes a Distinção por Serviços Públicos, o Prémio de Astronáutica John F. Kennedy da Sociedade Astronáutica Norte-Americana, o Prémio de Beneficência Pública por “distintas contribuições para o bem estar da humanidade”, a Medalha Tsiolkovsky da Federação Cosmonáutica Soviética, o Prémio Masursky da Sociedade Astronómica Norte-Americana, o prémio Pulitzer de literatura, em 1978, por seu livro Os Dragões do Éden e o prémio Emmy, por sua série Cosmos. Em sua homenagem, o asteróide 2709 Sagan tem o seu nome.

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